التكنولوجيا واملجتمع الفصل الدرايس الثاين 2016/2015. Chapter 3: The Sources of Technological Change

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1 مساق: التكنولوجيا واملجتمع الفصل الدرايس الثاين 2016/2015 Chapter 3: The Sources of Technological Change 1

2 2 Introduction What accounts for the emergence of particular technologies? Why do they appear when they do? What sort of forces generate them? How is the choice of technology exercised? Examples Why were digital computers developed only during the second half of the twentieth century even though their basic principles were understood more than a hundred years earlier? Why did photography undergo rapid development during the nineteenth century? What were the inventors of radio trying to accomplish, and how did their intentions differ from those of subsequent developers?

3 3 Technological Change as a Social Process Technology is a human creation, and because humans are social creatures, technological change is necessarily a social process. Technological Determinism (Technology is often believed to be an independent force in human life, unaffected by social forces) The "Social Construction of Technology" offers a different perspective. social constructivist analyses have often shown how differences in power and access to resources have shaped technological change. Particular technologies may be devised (invented), selected, and disseminated because they serve the interests of a particular group, possibly in opposition to the interests of other groups.

4 4 Examples constructivists would challenge it by noting that the technical development of the computer in the 1950s and 1960s was heavily supported by military expenditures. Internet, was initially a creation of the U.S. Department of Defense. The expansion of the market for computers was also powerfully stimulated by commercial enterprises like banks and insurance companies.

5 5 Social constructivism the study of technological change has been strongly influenced by a perspective known as social constructivism, According to this approach, technological change does not occur because new devices and processes demonstrate their clear-cut superiority over other ways of doing things. For social constructivists, the analysis has to begin with the need to explain why certain technologies are assumed to work better than others.

6 6 Social constructivism cont. To explain why things turned out the way they did, social constructivists describe how social structures and processes have affected choices of technologies. Since the presence of interest groups and unequal distributions of power are fundamental aspects of every society, social constructivists are particularly interested in delineating (defining) the main actors involved in the development and selection of particular technologies, and in noting how their actions reflect their positions in society.

7 7 Social constructivism cont. For scholarly practitioners of social constructivism technological change is an inherently political process. New technologies do not succeed or fail solely (just) on the basis of narrow technical merits (features). The achievement of technological closure (the point at which a particular technology is recognized as the accepted way of doing things, while others disappear) is closely tied to the presence of specific interest groups and their ability to affect the selection process.

8 8 Social constructivism cont. The strength of the social constructivist approach may depend on the developmental stage of a particular technology. According to Hughes, social constructivism is most valid when a technology is at an early stage of development. Social, political, and economic forces are likely to exert the greatest influence when several alternative technologies emerge at about the same time. Conversely, once a technology has become well established, it becomes difficult to deviate from the path that has been laid out by technical requirements.

9 9 Social constructivism For example at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, drivers could choose between cars with electric, steam, or internal (قوة االحتراق الداخلي) combustion power Selecting the latter was not simply a matter of technical superiority, but was a reflection of the needs and expectations of the individuals who were the prime purchasers of automobiles. Once automobiles powered by internal combustion engines became well entrenched (difficult or unlikely to change), the adoption of another type of automobile engine became extraordinarily difficult. because the basic elements of our personal transportation infrastructure were firmly in place, fuel used skills necessary for effective repair work. Under these conditions, technical requirements will prevail (win or dominate)

10 10 The Great Breakthrough History of technology linked to single revolutionary inventions: Penicillin Light Bulb Air Plane Technological breakthroughs are often connected to genius of individual: Alexander Fleming Thomas Edison The Wright Brothers

11 11 The Great Breakthrough cont. Entrepreneurs who take invention and convert it into a commercial success are also important, though less recognized than inventors themselves. Despite the "Great Breakthrough" --> Technological advances are achieved slowly, over time "...few great successes stem (ينبع) from one strategic thrust. More often, they result from one half-good idea that is improved upon incrementally. These improvements are invariably the result of a lot of little people paying attention to the product, the customer, and the marketplace."

12 12 Research & Development The process of making a technology work is often summarized by the abbreviation R&D, which stands for research and development. Research is the source of fundamental change in technology Lays the groundwork for development Development-->prepares new technology for actual production Research would mean nothing w/out the ability to develop product Penicillin- (1928- A. Fleming) discovered mold. Large-scale production of Penicillin required development of new technology. New, larger vats to grow culture. Development of Anti-foaming products. Prior to development of new procedure--> Penicillin $20/dose --> After $.55/dose

13 13 All together Technology is a system of events not a single event. "Technological advances often occur because of the availability of complementary technological developments that allow for the resolution of fundamental problems Technology takes time to come to full fruition. The "computer. Development of technology isn t confined (limited) to one area different areas influence one another. In order for technology to exist there must be a demand for it. Two types of technological advances: Refinement/improvement of existing way of doing things. Truly revolutionary breakthrough.

14 14 Questions: In the past, inventors (Edison, Wright brothers, etc) were often treated as celebrities. Can you name any contemporary inventors? Why may they be less prominent today? If you wanted to develop an innovative technology, how would you go about determining whether or not the market was receptive? If you were a leader of a country, what would you do to accelerate technological innovation?

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